THE ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS
Following Richard Nixon's visit to Latin America and the Cuban Revolution at the end of Dwight Eisenhower's second term in office, it was clear that a change in direction was required with regard to US-Latin American policy.
However, to begin with, John F. Kennedy built upon pre-existing policies. The Kennedy Doctrine reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine in that the Americas should remain off-limits to outside powers, specifically in this case the USSR. It was clear to many that this meant removing any Soviet presence in Cuba. The policy of Flexible Response developed and modified Eisenhower's New Look, especially the use of massive nuclear retaliation as a deterrent. Kennedy made it clear that the use of nuclear weapons should be a last resort and that his administration favoured a more pragmatic and layered approach, for example negotiation with the USSR in the early stages of crises.
Kennedy's time in office was dominated domestically by the ongoing civil rights struggle and internationally by the Cuban Missile Crisis. While the Bay of Pigs fiasco was a massive failure for his administration (as well as a legacy of the Eisenhower era), the Cuban Missile Crisis had numerous consequences for Kennedy's Latin American policy. While it appeared to vindicate his Flexible Response policy, it meant that the Kennedy Doctrine would not be applied to Cuba (one of the conditions for removal of Soviet missiles was a promise not to invade the island), as it was recognised that Soviet influence would remain there for the time being. Despite that, there a number of CIA attempts to covertly assassinate Fidel Castro (most famously poisoned shaving foam and exploding cigars) as part of Operation Mongoose.
To find out more about the Cuban Missile Crisis and its consequences for the Cold War, click here .
However, prior to all these events, Kennedy announced his plans for an Alliance for Progress in March 1961. This was intended to provide financial aid ($20 Billion or 18% of all US foreign aid) to Latin America for socio-economic development with 6 key objectives to be met over a 10 year period. The 6 objectives were:
Using the same underlying principles that the Marshall Aid Plan used in Europe- that prosperity and stability were necessary to prevent a spread of communism- participating countries had to commit themselves to redistributive policies (5-10% of Latin American populations owned 70-80% of the land). However, it was understood that this was a long-term scheme where collaboration between the USA and Latin American governments was necessary.
Unfortunately, the Alliance for Progress was ultimately a failure. The US donation of $20 billion (Latin American participants contributed $80 million between them) only amounted to $10 per person, per year in the countries involved and the funds were not always distributed as they were intended. Additionally, Kennedy could not prevent a Latin American slide into right-wing authoritarianism and hoped to pursue a policy of gradual democratization and social change. This never materialized and although the introduction of these regimes prevented communism from taking hold, little was done to alleviate the suffering that most Latin Americans experienced.
Following Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon Johnson pledged to continue the Alliance for Progress but also introduced the Mann Doctrine. Devised by his appointee as Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, Thomas Mann, this policy diluted the Alliance for Progress still further. Whereas in theory the Alliance for Progress promoted social progress and stability equally, the Mann Doctrine emphasised economic growth, if necessary at the expense of social reform. It also pushed for the protection of US business interests and argued that cooperation with military dictators could be necessary in order to prevent the spread of communism. In implementing this policy, the Johnson administration promoted stability over democracy and social progress and failed to differentiate between anti-US and communist groups. The fact that Johnson's time in office was dominated by the escalating conflict in Vietnam meant that Latin America was de-prioritized as never before- funding for economic assistance was cut but not military assistance.
Johnson gave his support to the Brazilian military when it deposed Joao Goulart and installed a right-wing dictatorship in 1964, even offering $1.5 billion in economic aid, and sent troops to the Dominican Republic in 1965 to support the pro-US regime that had previously overthrown the country's first democratically elected leader (and also a leftist), Juan Bosch. In addition, the Johnson administration gave their support to other anti-communist dictatorships in the region, such as Duvalier in Haiti, Somoza in Nicaragua and a military junta in El Salvador. The policies of the latter two regimes contributed to lengthy civil wars with Marxist insurgency groups that began in the 1970's and only concluded in the late 1980's.
However, to begin with, John F. Kennedy built upon pre-existing policies. The Kennedy Doctrine reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine in that the Americas should remain off-limits to outside powers, specifically in this case the USSR. It was clear to many that this meant removing any Soviet presence in Cuba. The policy of Flexible Response developed and modified Eisenhower's New Look, especially the use of massive nuclear retaliation as a deterrent. Kennedy made it clear that the use of nuclear weapons should be a last resort and that his administration favoured a more pragmatic and layered approach, for example negotiation with the USSR in the early stages of crises.
Kennedy's time in office was dominated domestically by the ongoing civil rights struggle and internationally by the Cuban Missile Crisis. While the Bay of Pigs fiasco was a massive failure for his administration (as well as a legacy of the Eisenhower era), the Cuban Missile Crisis had numerous consequences for Kennedy's Latin American policy. While it appeared to vindicate his Flexible Response policy, it meant that the Kennedy Doctrine would not be applied to Cuba (one of the conditions for removal of Soviet missiles was a promise not to invade the island), as it was recognised that Soviet influence would remain there for the time being. Despite that, there a number of CIA attempts to covertly assassinate Fidel Castro (most famously poisoned shaving foam and exploding cigars) as part of Operation Mongoose.
To find out more about the Cuban Missile Crisis and its consequences for the Cold War, click here .
However, prior to all these events, Kennedy announced his plans for an Alliance for Progress in March 1961. This was intended to provide financial aid ($20 Billion or 18% of all US foreign aid) to Latin America for socio-economic development with 6 key objectives to be met over a 10 year period. The 6 objectives were:
-
An increase in per capita income (2.5% p.a.)
- Trade diversification
- The elimination of adult illiteracy by 1970
- Price stability
- Industrialization and increased employment
- Social reforms, including land reform and democratization
Using the same underlying principles that the Marshall Aid Plan used in Europe- that prosperity and stability were necessary to prevent a spread of communism- participating countries had to commit themselves to redistributive policies (5-10% of Latin American populations owned 70-80% of the land). However, it was understood that this was a long-term scheme where collaboration between the USA and Latin American governments was necessary.
Unfortunately, the Alliance for Progress was ultimately a failure. The US donation of $20 billion (Latin American participants contributed $80 million between them) only amounted to $10 per person, per year in the countries involved and the funds were not always distributed as they were intended. Additionally, Kennedy could not prevent a Latin American slide into right-wing authoritarianism and hoped to pursue a policy of gradual democratization and social change. This never materialized and although the introduction of these regimes prevented communism from taking hold, little was done to alleviate the suffering that most Latin Americans experienced.
Following Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon Johnson pledged to continue the Alliance for Progress but also introduced the Mann Doctrine. Devised by his appointee as Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, Thomas Mann, this policy diluted the Alliance for Progress still further. Whereas in theory the Alliance for Progress promoted social progress and stability equally, the Mann Doctrine emphasised economic growth, if necessary at the expense of social reform. It also pushed for the protection of US business interests and argued that cooperation with military dictators could be necessary in order to prevent the spread of communism. In implementing this policy, the Johnson administration promoted stability over democracy and social progress and failed to differentiate between anti-US and communist groups. The fact that Johnson's time in office was dominated by the escalating conflict in Vietnam meant that Latin America was de-prioritized as never before- funding for economic assistance was cut but not military assistance.
Johnson gave his support to the Brazilian military when it deposed Joao Goulart and installed a right-wing dictatorship in 1964, even offering $1.5 billion in economic aid, and sent troops to the Dominican Republic in 1965 to support the pro-US regime that had previously overthrown the country's first democratically elected leader (and also a leftist), Juan Bosch. In addition, the Johnson administration gave their support to other anti-communist dictatorships in the region, such as Duvalier in Haiti, Somoza in Nicaragua and a military junta in El Salvador. The policies of the latter two regimes contributed to lengthy civil wars with Marxist insurgency groups that began in the 1970's and only concluded in the late 1980's.