RICHARD NIXON
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Nixon the fighter
Richard Nixon had humble origins; his parent's farm on the north-eastern outskirts of Los Angeles failed when he was 9 years old and the family (all strict Quakers) moved to Whittier, a small city south-east of LA, where his father opened a grocery store and a gas station. Two of Nixon's brothers died of tuberculosis in the 1920's and '30's and the young Nixon struggled to win the approval (or even the attention) of his parents. Despite coming from a poor background, Nixon worked prodigiously hard in school and earned excellent grades. He could not afford the Ivy league or elite university education that many of his post-war political peers had access to (although he was offered a place at Harvard), attending Whittier College instead, but his final GPA was so outstanding that he won a scholarship to Duke University Law School. After graduation, he worked for a law firm in California before enlisting as an officer in the Navy during World War II, where he supervised transportation of supplies for front-line troops in the Pacific.
These early experiences did much to shape his character which would become both an asset and a liability for his political career. He was stubbornly determined, hard working and incredibly ambitious; at the same time he could be ruthless, paranoid and insecure. A natural introvert, he identified himself as a conservative and could never bring himself to trust, or end his resentment towards, the privileged, East Coast, liberal elite. Despite this, he possessed an appreciation of history and a visionary purpose that made him capable of great political achievements. Finally, he was a gifted politician, extremely opportunistic but most crucially, tough and resilient. As Nixon himself said during his 1974 presidential resignation speech, "I have never been a quitter".
These early experiences did much to shape his character which would become both an asset and a liability for his political career. He was stubbornly determined, hard working and incredibly ambitious; at the same time he could be ruthless, paranoid and insecure. A natural introvert, he identified himself as a conservative and could never bring himself to trust, or end his resentment towards, the privileged, East Coast, liberal elite. Despite this, he possessed an appreciation of history and a visionary purpose that made him capable of great political achievements. Finally, he was a gifted politician, extremely opportunistic but most crucially, tough and resilient. As Nixon himself said during his 1974 presidential resignation speech, "I have never been a quitter".
Nixon's pre-presidential political career
Following the end of his military service in World War II, Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. As a member of HUAC, he rose to national prominence during his questioning of Alger Hiss for suspected communist activities, strongly establishing his anti-Communist credentials. In 1950, he won election to the Senate following an acrimonious campaign during which he described his Democratic opponent as 'pink right down to her underwear.' Although some found his rhetoric distasteful (earning him the nickname 'Tricky Dicky'), his attempts to suggest her voting record (she was also a member of the House of Representatives) as evidence of communist sympathies were successful. Such was the impression Nixon was making on the G.O.P., he was selected as Dwight Eisenhower's running mate for the 1952 Presidential Election. After only 6 years in politics, Nixon had risen to become Vice-President of the United States.
Wishing to capitalize on the economic prosperity of the Eisenhower years, Nixon was nominated as the Republican Presidential Nominee in 1960 and contested a desperately tight election with John F. Kennedy. After his defeat, Nixon challenged the incumbent for the governorship of California in 1962 but was again unsuccessful. At this point, many felt Nixon's mainstream political career was over.
Wishing to capitalize on the economic prosperity of the Eisenhower years, Nixon was nominated as the Republican Presidential Nominee in 1960 and contested a desperately tight election with John F. Kennedy. After his defeat, Nixon challenged the incumbent for the governorship of California in 1962 but was again unsuccessful. At this point, many felt Nixon's mainstream political career was over.
The 1968 Election
However, due to combination of good luck and his stubborn determination, Nixon found himself thrust upon the national stage once again in 1968. Only four years earlier, Barry Goldwater, the Republican Presidential Nominee from Arizona, was crushed by Lyndon Johnson in the 1964 election. What was barely noticed at the time was the changes taking place within the Republican Party- Goldwater represented a new brand of uncompromising conservatism that was increasingly attracting grass roots support. Additionally, Johnson's administration became increasingly unpopular as a result of the war in Vietnam. Events reached a climax in 1968 when the following occurred:
While the Democratic Party was busy tearing itself apart, Nixon successfully campaigned to be the Republican Presidential Nominee and was creating an extremely effective voting coalition. He did this by:
Nixon's charge for the White House was also assisted by the third party campaign of former Democratic Governor of Alabama (and notorious segregationist) George Wallace, who took more votes from the Democratic Party in the South. Nixon's election brought an end to the New Deal Coalition (which had been in place since Roosevelt's election in 1932) and ensured the rise of a more conservative (and electorally successful) Republican Party. Between 1968 and 1992, the Republicans held the Presidency for 20 out of 24 years.
- The Tet Offensive : the psychological 'knock-out' for US involvement in the Vietnam War which led to Johnson deciding not to run for re-election in the presidential election.
- The assassinations of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King jr .: Kennedy was seen as the front-runner for the Democratic nomination and a politician capable of holding the party together. King's assassination came after race riots in Newark and Detroit in 1967 and was followed by outbreaks of unrest in cities across the country.
- The Democratic National Convention in Chicago : the different factions within the Democratic Party converged on Chicago for the announcement of the party's Presidential Nominee (Hubert Humphrey). Anti-war protestors closed with members of the Chicago Police Department who were given strict zero-tolerance instructions by Chicago mayor Richard Daley (also a Democrat). Investigators would later describe the violence as the result of a "police riot". The convention confirmed the suspicion held in much of the country- that the Democrats were divided and at odds which each other.
While the Democratic Party was busy tearing itself apart, Nixon successfully campaigned to be the Republican Presidential Nominee and was creating an extremely effective voting coalition. He did this by:
- Forming a "Southern Strategy" : following the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Democrats lost control of some Southern states. Nixon built on the resentment in the South towards desegregation and the advancement of African-American Civil Rights. He successfully appealed to large numbers of Southern whites by emphasising his electoral platform of "law and order" and "states' rights"- confirming their belief that the civil rights movement had destabilized American society and infringed the rights of Southern states to manage their own affairs.
- Appealing to the "Silent Majority" : Nixon successfully gambled that their was plenty of mainstream opposition within US society to civil rights campaigners, anti-war protesters and the hippie movement. After the drama of an escalating conflict in Vietnam, racial unrest at home and rapid social change, there were many who yearned for a return to what they perceived to be stability and normality.
Nixon's charge for the White House was also assisted by the third party campaign of former Democratic Governor of Alabama (and notorious segregationist) George Wallace, who took more votes from the Democratic Party in the South. Nixon's election brought an end to the New Deal Coalition (which had been in place since Roosevelt's election in 1932) and ensured the rise of a more conservative (and electorally successful) Republican Party. Between 1968 and 1992, the Republicans held the Presidency for 20 out of 24 years.
Nixon's 'New Federalism'
Despite the massive political changes that took place during the 1960's, Nixon was a surprisingly liberal president, largely because being a gifted politician, he always sought to position himself in line with public opinion.
Nixon's New Federalism sought to limit the scope and size of the federal government and transfer powers back to the states, believing that money spent at local level would be more effective in terms of meeting the needs of population than large federal budgets managed by Washington bureaucrats. Therefore, he shut down some Great Society programs that were unpopular with Republicans, such as the Office of Economic Opportunity (which was the leading agency in the "war on poverty") and cut funding to others. In 1972, he created the State and Local Assistance Act that redistributed federal money to state and local governments. Initially the money transferred from federal budgets was $4 billion, rising to $83 billion by the time of the program's cancellation in 1986.
Most radical of all, Nixon proposed a family allowance program that would replace food stamps and Medicaid and instead provide a year payment of $1,600 to single-parent families and working-poor families of four. This proposal was in line with his conservative values because it provided money directly to the beneficiaries without government regulation and bureaucracy but was opposed from all sides and was therefore never realised. Conservatives opposed it because it ensured guaranteed income, trade unions feared it undermined the minimum wage, while liberals argued that the money was insufficient for a family of four to support itself on. Still wishing to alleviate poverty, Nixon increased government funding for food stamps and Medicaid.
Nixon's New Federalism sought to limit the scope and size of the federal government and transfer powers back to the states, believing that money spent at local level would be more effective in terms of meeting the needs of population than large federal budgets managed by Washington bureaucrats. Therefore, he shut down some Great Society programs that were unpopular with Republicans, such as the Office of Economic Opportunity (which was the leading agency in the "war on poverty") and cut funding to others. In 1972, he created the State and Local Assistance Act that redistributed federal money to state and local governments. Initially the money transferred from federal budgets was $4 billion, rising to $83 billion by the time of the program's cancellation in 1986.
Most radical of all, Nixon proposed a family allowance program that would replace food stamps and Medicaid and instead provide a year payment of $1,600 to single-parent families and working-poor families of four. This proposal was in line with his conservative values because it provided money directly to the beneficiaries without government regulation and bureaucracy but was opposed from all sides and was therefore never realised. Conservatives opposed it because it ensured guaranteed income, trade unions feared it undermined the minimum wage, while liberals argued that the money was insufficient for a family of four to support itself on. Still wishing to alleviate poverty, Nixon increased government funding for food stamps and Medicaid.
Nixonian Economic Policies
Nixon's biggest economic problem was massive inflation. This was largely a consequence of a federal deficit caused by increased government spending on New Deal and Great Society programs. Nixon's response was to impose temporary wage and price controls (as Truman had done 25 years earlier) which were popular with the electorate but not big business. When rising unemployment also became an issue, Nixon announced his conversion to Keynesian economics (where the government and Federal Reserve played an active role in monetary policy). In 1971, Nixon announced a range of measures that delivered a short-term boost to the economy (although not necessarily beneficial over the long-term) and played a decisive role in winning the 1972 election. These measures included:
The short-term effects were:
However, inflation remained problematic and the economy became far more volatile following the OPEC oil embargo. Moreover, the US economy entered a period of recession in 1973.
- Wage and price controls
- Abandonment of the gold standard
- Devaluation of the dollar to give US businesses a competitive advantage over foreign rivals
- Deficit spending to stimulate economic growth
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Significantly for his second term, he introduced a 10% import duty on foreign oil (there was a profound oil shortage following an OPEC oil embargo in 1973 and 1974)
The short-term effects were:
- The stock market made the biggest single day gain in history on the 16th of August 1972
- Social Security and Medicaid payments increased from 6.3% to 8.9% of GNP
- Defense spending dropped from 9.1% to 5.8% of GNP
- The economy steadily grew
- Unemployment remained low
However, inflation remained problematic and the economy became far more volatile following the OPEC oil embargo. Moreover, the US economy entered a period of recession in 1973.
Nixonian social policies
Although elected promising to slow down the pace of desegregation, Nixon's efforts in these areas were hardly persistent. He proposed the construction of new local schools (in line with his Jeffersonian principles- local autonomy) but this was struck down by federal courts as being an new version of the "separate but equal" argument (albeit with more emphasis on the "equal"). Nixon therefore complied with the court order and was extremely efficient at ensuring desegregation. When he took office, nearly 70% of African-American children still attended segregated school. By the end of 1970, this number was reduced to less than 10%. The court decision allowed Nixon to maintain the support of the South, arguing that his hands were tied.
During his presidency, voting rights were extended to 18-year-olds and introduce Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex with regard to federally-funded educational programs. Finally, he also introduced an affirmative action initiative called the Philadelphia Plan which aimed to provide training and employment opportunities for minorities.
During his presidency, voting rights were extended to 18-year-olds and introduce Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex with regard to federally-funded educational programs. Finally, he also introduced an affirmative action initiative called the Philadelphia Plan which aimed to provide training and employment opportunities for minorities.
Nixon and the environment
When Nixon took office, there was a burgeoning environmental movement in the USA (the first Earth Day occurred in 1970). Nixon again positioned himself in the political center by creating the Environmental Protection Agency and passing the Clean Air Act and Water Pollution Act.
Watergate
The Watergate Scandal was a direct result of Nixon's paranoia, his leadership style and his desire to win a second term. The introverted Nixon was one of the few presidents not to work out of the Oval Office and the President's Study as he disliked surrounding himself with numerous advisors as Kennedy and Johnson had done. Instead he insulated himself with a precious few trusted confidants in a small private office hidden in a more isolated part of the White House. In doing so, he steadily cut himself off from the rest of government.
Nixon's paranoia, always a part of his personality, rose to the fore after the publication of the Pentagon Papers, when top secret government documents on the war in Vietnam were leaked to the New York Times. When there were more revelations about US bombing of Cambodia, Nixon began to extensively use a tape recording system to monitor conversations in order find leaks within the White House (the system had been installed by FDR was a way to record his conversations for posterity).
However, during the 1972 Presidential Election, Nixon wanted to deliver a crushing defeat on George McGovern, his Democratic opponent. What is particularly astonishing about the conduct of Nixon during this campaign was that he was projected to win comfortably anyway. The start of the scandal occurred when police interrupted a break-in at the Democratic Party Campaign Headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C.
Initially ignored by the majority of the media, two reporters at the Washington Post (Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein) pursued the story and, helped by a secret information codenamed "Deepthroat", managed to uncover evidence linking the burglars to the Committee to Re-Elect the President (or, as it was referred to by the Democrats, CREEP). Once it was revealed that money had been transferred by people linked to the President to the so-called "plumbers" (who were mostly ex-CIA operatives), congressional hearings were held.
Eventually, top White House aids were subpoenaed and indicted on corruption charges. As it became clear that the trail of hush money could be traced to Nixon's closest advisors, there was inevitable scrutiny on the president himself. When it was revealed that Nixon had been recording conversations in the White House, the tapes were subpoenaed. After a protracted legal battle, Nixon eventually was forced to hand over the tapes, although an 18 minute section was missing (later dubbed a "smoking gun"). To many, it was clear that while Nixon may not have ordered the Watergate break-in, he had been aware of it (if not at the time, shortly after the fact) and had participated in a cover-up. While the Senate considered articles of impeachment, Nixon resigned, the first sitting president to do so in office.
Nixon's paranoia, always a part of his personality, rose to the fore after the publication of the Pentagon Papers, when top secret government documents on the war in Vietnam were leaked to the New York Times. When there were more revelations about US bombing of Cambodia, Nixon began to extensively use a tape recording system to monitor conversations in order find leaks within the White House (the system had been installed by FDR was a way to record his conversations for posterity).
However, during the 1972 Presidential Election, Nixon wanted to deliver a crushing defeat on George McGovern, his Democratic opponent. What is particularly astonishing about the conduct of Nixon during this campaign was that he was projected to win comfortably anyway. The start of the scandal occurred when police interrupted a break-in at the Democratic Party Campaign Headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C.
Initially ignored by the majority of the media, two reporters at the Washington Post (Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein) pursued the story and, helped by a secret information codenamed "Deepthroat", managed to uncover evidence linking the burglars to the Committee to Re-Elect the President (or, as it was referred to by the Democrats, CREEP). Once it was revealed that money had been transferred by people linked to the President to the so-called "plumbers" (who were mostly ex-CIA operatives), congressional hearings were held.
Eventually, top White House aids were subpoenaed and indicted on corruption charges. As it became clear that the trail of hush money could be traced to Nixon's closest advisors, there was inevitable scrutiny on the president himself. When it was revealed that Nixon had been recording conversations in the White House, the tapes were subpoenaed. After a protracted legal battle, Nixon eventually was forced to hand over the tapes, although an 18 minute section was missing (later dubbed a "smoking gun"). To many, it was clear that while Nixon may not have ordered the Watergate break-in, he had been aware of it (if not at the time, shortly after the fact) and had participated in a cover-up. While the Senate considered articles of impeachment, Nixon resigned, the first sitting president to do so in office.
Nixon: a legacy
As an extremely capable politician, Nixon had a talent for positioning himself at the center of political opinion and was therefore a surprisingly liberal Republican president. However, in spite of his considerable political achievements, his presidency was overshadowed by the Watergate Scandal, which was also a seminal crisis for the USA in general.
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