COURSE AND PRACTICES OF WORLD WAR I
Franz Ferdinand was assassinated on the 28t.h of June. On the 23rd of July, emboldened by Germany's 'blank cheque', Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Austria knew that one demand, the involvement of Austrian agents in the investigation into the assassination would be unpalatable to the Serbians as it would be considered an attack on their sovereignty. Serbia, feeling confident after being backed by Russia, rejected this ultimatum and Austria declared war on the 28th of July. Austria and Russia ordered general mobilization of their armies on the 30th of July. This was when the Schlieffen plan kicked in.
Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan was a preemptive war plan that depended on rapid deployment. The aim of the Schlieffen Plan was to avoid a two-front war with both Russia and France. This was to be achieved by defeating France within 6 weeks before turning round to fight a longer war against the Russians. In order for this to be possible the German High Command made a number of calculated gambles:
Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan was a preemptive war plan that depended on rapid deployment. The aim of the Schlieffen Plan was to avoid a two-front war with both Russia and France. This was to be achieved by defeating France within 6 weeks before turning round to fight a longer war against the Russians. In order for this to be possible the German High Command made a number of calculated gambles:
- Russia would be slow to mobilize. The Germans believed that the sheer size of Russia combined with a lack of rail development would mean it would take 6 weeks for the Russian Army to arrive at the German border. Austria would also attack Russia soon after war broke out to delay the Russians further.
- There would be limited resistance in Holland and Belgium.
- The British would be slow to assist the French.
- The French would attack Germany through Alsace-Lorraine. The French were greatly humiliated and angered following the loss of this region following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1 and were desperate to regain control of it.
The Schlieffen Plan failed because:
The British and France scrambled to make a desperate defence of Paris at the Battle of the Marne which was ultimate successful by the 9th of September. After this point, stalemate set in following a 3 month 'race to the sea' as both sides tried to outflank each other. A line of trenches were dug between the English Channel and the Alps. This line largely remained in place for the duration of the war, although there were many attempts by both sides to break through. The war was very attritional in nature and comprised of 3 fronts- Western, Eastern and Southern.
- Austria did not attack Russia early enough to delay them.
- Russia were much quicker to mobilize than expected. Their railway capabilities were stronger than expected and had invaded Eastern Germany by the 20th of August.
- The British declared war and mobilized the BEF (British Expeditionary Force) as soon as Germany invaded Belgium. This was because it violated Belgian neutrality which had been agreed upon at the Treaty of London in 1839. This also strengthened resistance to the Germans in Belgium. The Belgians were also stronger than expected- they held up the Germans briefly at the Battle of Liege and even flooded the French channel ports to prevent Germany from gaining them.
- The French did not commit as many troops to attack through Alsace Lorraine as expected.
- The Germans compromised on the wide-arching attack through the Low Countries and encountered more resistance as a result.
The British and France scrambled to make a desperate defence of Paris at the Battle of the Marne which was ultimate successful by the 9th of September. After this point, stalemate set in following a 3 month 'race to the sea' as both sides tried to outflank each other. A line of trenches were dug between the English Channel and the Alps. This line largely remained in place for the duration of the war, although there were many attempts by both sides to break through. The war was very attritional in nature and comprised of 3 fronts- Western, Eastern and Southern.
The Eastern Front
Battle of Tannenburg - After significant advances into Germany, the Russians were surrounded and defeated here between 22nd and 29th of August 1914. The Russians never seriously threatened the German border again.
Battle of Masurian Lakes- Further defeat of Russia forces by the Germans between 5th and 15th of September 1914. Russians continued to tie up large numbers of German troops in the east until 1917.
Brusilov Offensive- Masterminded by General Alexei Brusilov in June 1916. The plan was to attack the Austrians in what is now the Ukraine and was aimed at relieving pressure on Italian forces (who had joined the Entente in 1915 and were struggling against the Austrians along the Isonzo River) and French forces at Verdun. The advance was initially very successful as the Russians captured 96 km by the end of June. However, the Russians were unable to maintain supply lines in July which slowed down the assault. The offensive was stopped altogether by September 1916 as German troops transferred from Verdun to the Eastern Front. Russia lost close to 1 million men during the Brusilov Offensive, which put even more pressure on fragile Russian morale and the ability of the Tsarist regime to continue to manage the war. The offensive did, however, fatally cripple Austria-Hungary's military, which could not longer operate without significant help from Germany.
Russian Revolution - Tsar Nicolas II was deposed in February 1917 by Alexander Kerensky's moderate Mensheviks, who attempted to continue the war. The more extreme Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in October 1917, largely because the first revolution had failed to provide any improvement to living conditions in Russia. Lenin's first act as leader was to remove the Russian Army from the war. Below is an example of pro-Bolshevik propaganda encouraging Russian soldiers to break free of the chains of war.
Battle of Tannenburg - After significant advances into Germany, the Russians were surrounded and defeated here between 22nd and 29th of August 1914. The Russians never seriously threatened the German border again.
Battle of Masurian Lakes- Further defeat of Russia forces by the Germans between 5th and 15th of September 1914. Russians continued to tie up large numbers of German troops in the east until 1917.
Brusilov Offensive- Masterminded by General Alexei Brusilov in June 1916. The plan was to attack the Austrians in what is now the Ukraine and was aimed at relieving pressure on Italian forces (who had joined the Entente in 1915 and were struggling against the Austrians along the Isonzo River) and French forces at Verdun. The advance was initially very successful as the Russians captured 96 km by the end of June. However, the Russians were unable to maintain supply lines in July which slowed down the assault. The offensive was stopped altogether by September 1916 as German troops transferred from Verdun to the Eastern Front. Russia lost close to 1 million men during the Brusilov Offensive, which put even more pressure on fragile Russian morale and the ability of the Tsarist regime to continue to manage the war. The offensive did, however, fatally cripple Austria-Hungary's military, which could not longer operate without significant help from Germany.
Russian Revolution - Tsar Nicolas II was deposed in February 1917 by Alexander Kerensky's moderate Mensheviks, who attempted to continue the war. The more extreme Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in October 1917, largely because the first revolution had failed to provide any improvement to living conditions in Russia. Lenin's first act as leader was to remove the Russian Army from the war. Below is an example of pro-Bolshevik propaganda encouraging Russian soldiers to break free of the chains of war.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
- signed by Germany and Russia in January 1918. This has very punitive towards the Russian, who lost large amounts of land and industry, as well as agreeing to pay reparations to Germany. It also allowed the Germans to transfer large numbers of troops from the Eastern to the Western Front.
The Southern Front
Battle of Kosovo - Austrians, Bulgarians and Germans defeated and conquered Serbia in November 1915. Many Serbian troops were forced to retreat into Albania, from where they were evacuated to the Greek island of Corfu.
Gallipoli Campaign - British and ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand) attempt to open up a southern front between February 1915 and January 1916 by attacking the Gallipoli Peninsula in the Dardanelles. The Dardanelles controlled the entrance to the Mediterranean from the Black Sea and were in the possession of the Ottoman Empire. This plan was masterminded by Winston Churchill, then British High Lord of the Admiralty. If successful, it would also open up supply routes to Russia and boost the morale of the Entente. The campaign failed because they could not break the defenses of the Ottoman troops who were well entrenched. This was despite a preliminary bombardment and an amphibious assault by close to a half a million troops. Churchill resigned his post and enlisted to fight on the Western Front shortly afterwards. See below for maps showing where the Gallipoli Peninsula is and whereabouts the landings took place.
Battle of Kosovo - Austrians, Bulgarians and Germans defeated and conquered Serbia in November 1915. Many Serbian troops were forced to retreat into Albania, from where they were evacuated to the Greek island of Corfu.
Gallipoli Campaign - British and ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand) attempt to open up a southern front between February 1915 and January 1916 by attacking the Gallipoli Peninsula in the Dardanelles. The Dardanelles controlled the entrance to the Mediterranean from the Black Sea and were in the possession of the Ottoman Empire. This plan was masterminded by Winston Churchill, then British High Lord of the Admiralty. If successful, it would also open up supply routes to Russia and boost the morale of the Entente. The campaign failed because they could not break the defenses of the Ottoman troops who were well entrenched. This was despite a preliminary bombardment and an amphibious assault by close to a half a million troops. Churchill resigned his post and enlisted to fight on the Western Front shortly afterwards. See below for maps showing where the Gallipoli Peninsula is and whereabouts the landings took place.
Battle of Vittorio Veneto-
Italian defeat of Austria-Hungary in October-November 1918 which officially marked the end of the war in Italy and secured the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungary left the union with Austria and many Eastern European countries claimed independence. It was also a factor in Germany's decision to ask for an armistice less than 2 weeks later.
Arab Revolt- the British encouraged the Arab tribes of what is now Saudi Arabia and Jordan to drive the Ottomans out of Palestine and Syria by promising them independence after the war. The revolt was successful and Damascus and Jerusalem were both captured in 1918. This war was much more mobile than the war in Europe and also consisted elements of Guerilla conflict. There was also fighting against the Ottomans in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) and Persia (Iran)
Arab Revolt- the British encouraged the Arab tribes of what is now Saudi Arabia and Jordan to drive the Ottomans out of Palestine and Syria by promising them independence after the war. The revolt was successful and Damascus and Jerusalem were both captured in 1918. This war was much more mobile than the war in Europe and also consisted elements of Guerilla conflict. There was also fighting against the Ottomans in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) and Persia (Iran)
The Western Front
Battles of Ypres- Ypres (Ieper in Flemish) was a strategically important Belgian town near the French border. It was built at the centre of network of roads that connected Belgium to both Germany and France. It came under substantial bombardment from all sides during the war and many citizens of Ypres were killed. It was the site of 3 battles (1914, 1915 and 1917) for control of the town. The second battle was a German attempt to gain control of the town and was the first time poison gas was used. The third battle (also know as Passchendaele) was a British offensive. The Allies (the US had joined the war by this stage) gained 8 km of land while sustaining 325,000 casualties, the Germans 260,00. Below: The Menin Gate in Ypres, where WWI memorial services for the fallen are held every day, complete with a rendition of the Last Post. The insides of the gate are inscribed with the names of British and Commonwealth soldiers who died in and around Ypres but whose bodies were never recovered.
Battles of Ypres- Ypres (Ieper in Flemish) was a strategically important Belgian town near the French border. It was built at the centre of network of roads that connected Belgium to both Germany and France. It came under substantial bombardment from all sides during the war and many citizens of Ypres were killed. It was the site of 3 battles (1914, 1915 and 1917) for control of the town. The second battle was a German attempt to gain control of the town and was the first time poison gas was used. The third battle (also know as Passchendaele) was a British offensive. The Allies (the US had joined the war by this stage) gained 8 km of land while sustaining 325,000 casualties, the Germans 260,00. Below: The Menin Gate in Ypres, where WWI memorial services for the fallen are held every day, complete with a rendition of the Last Post. The insides of the gate are inscribed with the names of British and Commonwealth soldiers who died in and around Ypres but whose bodies were never recovered.
Battle of Verdun-
Massive German assault on a series of French fortresses between February and December 1916. Verdun was crucial for French morale and defense. The German strategy was one of attrition- they knew the French would record a high number of casualties (dead, missing or wounded) in order to defend it. In the words of one German commander, they were going to "bleed France white". As predicted by the German Chief of General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, France weakened other parts of the lines in order to defend Verdun. However, despite losses totaling 542,000 and the temporary capture of several forts, the French held Verdun. The Germans only gained 8km more territory than when it had begun and suffered 434,000 casualties.
Battle of the Somme- The British attempted to break the stalemate and relieve the French defenses at Verdun by attacking the German lines near the Somme River between July and November 1916.This attack was masterminded by Field Marshall Douglas Haig. Traditional attritional tactics were used but preliminary bombardment failed to sufficiently weaken German lines and advancing British infantry sustained horrific casualties. On the first day alone the British suffered close to 60,000 casualties. By the end of the battle, the British and French sustained 623,000 casualties and the Germans 500,000- over 1 million total combined. Land gains by the British and French were minimal. Below: a film from the British Archives with live footage of the Battle of the Somme (some of this was staged).
Battle of the Somme- The British attempted to break the stalemate and relieve the French defenses at Verdun by attacking the German lines near the Somme River between July and November 1916.This attack was masterminded by Field Marshall Douglas Haig. Traditional attritional tactics were used but preliminary bombardment failed to sufficiently weaken German lines and advancing British infantry sustained horrific casualties. On the first day alone the British suffered close to 60,000 casualties. By the end of the battle, the British and French sustained 623,000 casualties and the Germans 500,000- over 1 million total combined. Land gains by the British and French were minimal. Below: a film from the British Archives with live footage of the Battle of the Somme (some of this was staged).
Entry of the USA
- The US joined the war in April 1917 as a result of unrestricted German submarine warfare, which increasingly targeted US vessels who were supplying Britain and France, and the discovery of the Zimmermann Telegram, which encouraged Mexico to invade the USA. This provided an enormous morale boost to Britain and France, although it took several months for significant numbers of American troops to arrive in Europe. By March 1918, 250,000 US troops were arriving at the Western Front every month.
Below: US propaganda poster encouraging people to enlist following the sinking of the Lusitania. The US is symbolized by Lady Liberty.
Ludendorff Offensive
- Major 'do-or-die' offensive from the Germans which aimed to break the stalemate and bring about a decisive victory before Germany could no longer continue fighting, especially in the face of US production. Masterminded by General Erich Ludendorff, there was no lengthy preliminary bombardment but a hurricane barrage only 30 minutes before the attack. This was followed not by a massed infantry advance but by rapid movement of small groups of stormtrooper infantry armed with lightweight submachine guns and hand grenades. Their aim was to penetrate and infiltrate weak points in the Allied lines, leaving stronger points isolated for subsequent attacks by troops with heavier weapon. These strormtroopers had great flexibility of movement and the element of surprise and a second wave of infantry was then sent to consolidate the capture of enemy territory. Despite making 65 km in the first week, the breakthrough was not significant and the advance lost momentum. This was due to a lack of reserve forces and supplies to exploit initial successes. The Allies pushed the Germans back in July and August and this retreat was irreversible as the stalemate had indeed been broken, although not in the way it had originally been intended.
Below: Map showing the extent of the Ludendorff Offensive and the subsequent retreat of the Germans.
Armistice
- fighting on all fronts ceased with the Armistice that took effect on the 11th of November 1918. This armistice was signed after the collapse of the other Central Powers:
Ultimately, the Central Powers collapsed because they could no longer continue to fight the war and their combined reserves of manpower and resources were much inferior to the Allies. Their collapse was hastened by difficulties faced on their home fronts.
World War I was an industrial war which featured some incredibly destructive weapons. However, it took a long time for suitable tactics to be developed to properly utilize and counter these technologies. Additionally, WWI was very attritional in nature as that was the manner in which wars had been traditionally fought up until that point. It was not until much later in the war that both sides focused on prosecuting a war of maneuver.
- Bulgaria on 29th September 1918
- Ottoman Empire on 30th October 1918
- Austria-Hungary on 3rd November 1918
Ultimately, the Central Powers collapsed because they could no longer continue to fight the war and their combined reserves of manpower and resources were much inferior to the Allies. Their collapse was hastened by difficulties faced on their home fronts.
World War I was an industrial war which featured some incredibly destructive weapons. However, it took a long time for suitable tactics to be developed to properly utilize and counter these technologies. Additionally, WWI was very attritional in nature as that was the manner in which wars had been traditionally fought up until that point. It was not until much later in the war that both sides focused on prosecuting a war of maneuver.
Technology
Machine Guns- used defensively early on in the war and could fire on average 500 rounds per minute. Technological developments later in the war led to the manufacture of machine guns that could be carried by one person, thus could be used offensively.
Heavy Artillery - could hit targets several miles away and were used at the start of an attack to weaker enemy defenses, kill enemy troops, destroy enemy machine guns and artillery and to cut barbed wire. However, there were technical and tactical problems with this weapon. These guns could be very inaccurate and many shells were duds. Barbed wire was frequently not cut by heavy bombardment and both sides started to reinforce trenches with concrete which could resist damage more easily. Finally, a heavy bombardment often signaled to the enemy that an attack was imminent and gave them time to call upon supplies and reservists.
Poison Gas- released initially in canisters and later in shells. This was used as also a psychological weapon but could backfire if the wind changed direction and blew back towards the trenches of those who fired it. Gas masks were later developed to counter this threat. 3 main gasses were used:
1. Chlorine (until December 1915)- this gas was green and would lead to suffocation, as inhalation in significant quantities would destroy the lungs.
2. Phosgene (introduced from December 1915)- also caused suffocation by only required inhalation in smaller quantities than Chlorine.
3. Dichlorethyl Sulphide or Mustard Gas (introduced from July 1917)- this gas was odourless slightly yellow in colour. It was highly toxic, even in small quantities. If the skin was exposed to the gas it caused internal blistering and (usually temporary) blindness.
The psychological impact of poison gas was often greater than its military effectiveness.
Machine Guns- used defensively early on in the war and could fire on average 500 rounds per minute. Technological developments later in the war led to the manufacture of machine guns that could be carried by one person, thus could be used offensively.
Heavy Artillery - could hit targets several miles away and were used at the start of an attack to weaker enemy defenses, kill enemy troops, destroy enemy machine guns and artillery and to cut barbed wire. However, there were technical and tactical problems with this weapon. These guns could be very inaccurate and many shells were duds. Barbed wire was frequently not cut by heavy bombardment and both sides started to reinforce trenches with concrete which could resist damage more easily. Finally, a heavy bombardment often signaled to the enemy that an attack was imminent and gave them time to call upon supplies and reservists.
Poison Gas- released initially in canisters and later in shells. This was used as also a psychological weapon but could backfire if the wind changed direction and blew back towards the trenches of those who fired it. Gas masks were later developed to counter this threat. 3 main gasses were used:
1. Chlorine (until December 1915)- this gas was green and would lead to suffocation, as inhalation in significant quantities would destroy the lungs.
2. Phosgene (introduced from December 1915)- also caused suffocation by only required inhalation in smaller quantities than Chlorine.
3. Dichlorethyl Sulphide or Mustard Gas (introduced from July 1917)- this gas was odourless slightly yellow in colour. It was highly toxic, even in small quantities. If the skin was exposed to the gas it caused internal blistering and (usually temporary) blindness.
The psychological impact of poison gas was often greater than its military effectiveness.
Barbed Wire-
layers of wire was used to line trenches making it extremely hard to cross. This also made infantry more vulnerable targets for enemy snipers.
Zeppelins - at the start of the war, aircraft lacked the capability to carry significant bomb loads, so Zeppelin airships carried out bombing raids. 51 Zeppelin bombing raids took place over Britain during the war and was responsible for 557 deaths. As they were large and slow, they were easy targets for anti-aircraft guns and were also inaccurate at ensuring bombs were dropped on target. 60 out of 84 produced were destroyed during the war. Below: A German Zeppelin
Zeppelins - at the start of the war, aircraft lacked the capability to carry significant bomb loads, so Zeppelin airships carried out bombing raids. 51 Zeppelin bombing raids took place over Britain during the war and was responsible for 557 deaths. As they were large and slow, they were easy targets for anti-aircraft guns and were also inaccurate at ensuring bombs were dropped on target. 60 out of 84 produced were destroyed during the war. Below: A German Zeppelin
Bomber planes-
developed over the course of war although limited in terms of range, speed and bomb load. Further developments made strategic bombing possible, such as providing support for troops on the ground by destroying artillery and supply lines.
Fighter Planes - flimsy, slow, unarmed and unreliable at the start of the war, by the end of the war they had become faster, more maneuverable and
armed with powerful guns. Although the Germans possessed the most technically sophisticated aircraft, the Allies had air superiority because their aircraft substantially outnumbered those of Germany.
Tanks- first used at the Battle of the Somme in September 1916 and was designed to provide cover for infantry. They were not properly used until the Battle of Cambrai in 1917 when they were used in large enough numbers. Early tanks also broke down more frequently and could get bogged down in no man's land.
Fighter Planes - flimsy, slow, unarmed and unreliable at the start of the war, by the end of the war they had become faster, more maneuverable and
armed with powerful guns. Although the Germans possessed the most technically sophisticated aircraft, the Allies had air superiority because their aircraft substantially outnumbered those of Germany.
Tanks- first used at the Battle of the Somme in September 1916 and was designed to provide cover for infantry. They were not properly used until the Battle of Cambrai in 1917 when they were used in large enough numbers. Early tanks also broke down more frequently and could get bogged down in no man's land.
Tactics
Attrition- 'the big push'- raditional World War I tactics involved a heavy bombardment of enemy lines to weaken defenses before concentrating large numbers of troops in order to overwhelm them. Sometimes this tactic would temporarily succeed, only for both sides to fail to keep onto newly acquired territory. More frequently, the 'big push' of infantry would get held up in no man's land, leading to huge numbers of casualties.Despite this, it was not until much later in the war that different tactics (based around maneuverability) were used, with a fair degree of success. Prior to that, these attritional tactics were repeatedly used despite both sides knowing that the chances of success were extremely limited. Therefore, many WWI commanders were accused of both callousness and incompetence. However, they were limited by the technology at their disposal and were under considerable political and strategic pressure to continually launch offensives. For this reason, it is difficult to identify alternative tactics that would have worked and it is no coincidence that as technology improved, so did tactics.
Attrition- 'the big push'- raditional World War I tactics involved a heavy bombardment of enemy lines to weaken defenses before concentrating large numbers of troops in order to overwhelm them. Sometimes this tactic would temporarily succeed, only for both sides to fail to keep onto newly acquired territory. More frequently, the 'big push' of infantry would get held up in no man's land, leading to huge numbers of casualties.Despite this, it was not until much later in the war that different tactics (based around maneuverability) were used, with a fair degree of success. Prior to that, these attritional tactics were repeatedly used despite both sides knowing that the chances of success were extremely limited. Therefore, many WWI commanders were accused of both callousness and incompetence. However, they were limited by the technology at their disposal and were under considerable political and strategic pressure to continually launch offensives. For this reason, it is difficult to identify alternative tactics that would have worked and it is no coincidence that as technology improved, so did tactics.
Maneuver-
were utilized more once technology improved and produced more reliable tanks and planes and allowed for better coordination between units to allow for rapid assaults. The main concepts of this approach were to commit troops to destroy or disrupt communications, or to commit troops to poorly defended parts of the enemy line where chances of success were high and the risks of losing large numbers of troops were low.
Creeping Barrage- coordinated advance between artillery and infantry that was so-called because it would "creep" towards the enemy lines, with the artillery providing cover for the infantry. However, inaccurate technology sometimes meant that troops died through 'friendly fire'.
Hurricane Barrage- short, intense artillery bombardment.
Naval Blockade - Britain established a naval blockade by the end of August 1914 at the Battle of Heligoland Bight where 4 German warships were sank. This blockade was very successful in preventing trade between Germany and other countries and had a devastating effect on the supplies of food, fuel and crucial raw materials getting into Germany. The German Navy tried to break the blockade at the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 but was unsuccessful, despite destroying 14 British battleships and only losing 11.
Creeping Barrage- coordinated advance between artillery and infantry that was so-called because it would "creep" towards the enemy lines, with the artillery providing cover for the infantry. However, inaccurate technology sometimes meant that troops died through 'friendly fire'.
Hurricane Barrage- short, intense artillery bombardment.
Naval Blockade - Britain established a naval blockade by the end of August 1914 at the Battle of Heligoland Bight where 4 German warships were sank. This blockade was very successful in preventing trade between Germany and other countries and had a devastating effect on the supplies of food, fuel and crucial raw materials getting into Germany. The German Navy tried to break the blockade at the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 but was unsuccessful, despite destroying 14 British battleships and only losing 11.
Why did Germany, Britain and France agree to an Armistice?
It is important to remember that Germany did not actually lose WWI- there was no foreign occupation of Germany like there would be in WWII. All sides agreed to an armistice to stop hostilities on the 11th of November 1918. However, at that point, Germany were losing the war and would have gone on to lose the war if they continued fighting. The situation in November 1918 was grave enough for the Germans to be the first power to propose an armistice and for the Allies to treat them as they would treat a defeated enemy at the Treaty of Versailles. So, why were Germany losing the war by November 1918?
Major Reasons
The Failure of the Schlieffen Plan - failed to prevent a two-front war. Remember, the Central Powers were already outnumbered in terms of manpower and resources by the Entente in 1914, so the success of the Schlieffen Plan was actually crucial in terms of delivering a German victory. Once this plan failed, stalemate, attrition and eventual inability to continue fighting were somewhat inevitable.
The British Naval Blockade - caused widespread socio-economic problems in Germany by 1918 which eventually led to mutinies within the German Navy and Army. By December 1915, Germany was importing half of what it had been importing in 1913. It attempted to address food deficiencies by creating food substitutes (such as a combination of flour, grain and mushrooms to replace meat). In order to save grain, one third of all German pigs were slaughtered in 1915 but this decision actually decrease the amount of protein and natural fertilizer available. 300,000 civilian deaths in Germany between 1914 and 1918 were due to malnutrition and decreased immune systems, brought about by starvation, further enabled the destructive spread of Spanish Flu.
Entry of the USA- provided massive morale boost and increase in manpower for the Allies. By 1918, the Central Powers could not continue to wage war with the Allies because of American entry.
Other Reasons
The Battle of the Somme - Many valuable German troops were killed during this battle and these were most definitely needed in 1918, especially during the Ludendorff Offensive. It should be noted, that this does not justify the large amount of British and French casualties incurred at the Somme. This factor is still very minor, especially when one considers the major factors above, and any success was gained at an extremely high price.
The Ludendorff Offensive - finally broke the stalemate and brought an end to the war quicker. As the war had become attritional, it became a war of resources rather than grand strategy. Therefore, it was inevitable that the Central Powers would lose. The Ludendorff Offensive hastened the end of the war.
Spanish Flu- due to unsanitary conditions in the trenches disease was common. The worst outbreak of disease was Spanish Fly which lasted from January 1918 to December 1920. This virus killed 6% of the world's population- 120 million people. In 1918, 500,000 German soldiers were too ill to fight and public morale had been weakened as a result.
Here is a document concerning war management by both sides:
It is important to remember that Germany did not actually lose WWI- there was no foreign occupation of Germany like there would be in WWII. All sides agreed to an armistice to stop hostilities on the 11th of November 1918. However, at that point, Germany were losing the war and would have gone on to lose the war if they continued fighting. The situation in November 1918 was grave enough for the Germans to be the first power to propose an armistice and for the Allies to treat them as they would treat a defeated enemy at the Treaty of Versailles. So, why were Germany losing the war by November 1918?
Major Reasons
The Failure of the Schlieffen Plan - failed to prevent a two-front war. Remember, the Central Powers were already outnumbered in terms of manpower and resources by the Entente in 1914, so the success of the Schlieffen Plan was actually crucial in terms of delivering a German victory. Once this plan failed, stalemate, attrition and eventual inability to continue fighting were somewhat inevitable.
The British Naval Blockade - caused widespread socio-economic problems in Germany by 1918 which eventually led to mutinies within the German Navy and Army. By December 1915, Germany was importing half of what it had been importing in 1913. It attempted to address food deficiencies by creating food substitutes (such as a combination of flour, grain and mushrooms to replace meat). In order to save grain, one third of all German pigs were slaughtered in 1915 but this decision actually decrease the amount of protein and natural fertilizer available. 300,000 civilian deaths in Germany between 1914 and 1918 were due to malnutrition and decreased immune systems, brought about by starvation, further enabled the destructive spread of Spanish Flu.
Entry of the USA- provided massive morale boost and increase in manpower for the Allies. By 1918, the Central Powers could not continue to wage war with the Allies because of American entry.
Other Reasons
The Battle of the Somme - Many valuable German troops were killed during this battle and these were most definitely needed in 1918, especially during the Ludendorff Offensive. It should be noted, that this does not justify the large amount of British and French casualties incurred at the Somme. This factor is still very minor, especially when one considers the major factors above, and any success was gained at an extremely high price.
The Ludendorff Offensive - finally broke the stalemate and brought an end to the war quicker. As the war had become attritional, it became a war of resources rather than grand strategy. Therefore, it was inevitable that the Central Powers would lose. The Ludendorff Offensive hastened the end of the war.
Spanish Flu- due to unsanitary conditions in the trenches disease was common. The worst outbreak of disease was Spanish Fly which lasted from January 1918 to December 1920. This virus killed 6% of the world's population- 120 million people. In 1918, 500,000 German soldiers were too ill to fight and public morale had been weakened as a result.
Here is a document concerning war management by both sides:
| war_management_wwi.docx |