JOHN F. KENNEDY
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John F. Kennedy's legacy is still hotly debated by historians, made all the more complicated by his early death in November 1963. It is fair to say that Kennedy took some time to find his feet in both domestic and foreign policy. The turning point for Kennedy in terms of the Cold War was certainly the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962) and in domestic policy, the Civil Rights events (specifically the Birmingham campaign and the University of Alabama stand-off) in the summer of 1963. Kennedy's responses in both areas finally put him on the front foot, handed him the initiative and ended a tendency to react to events after they had already happened. However, his assassination in Dallas, Texas meant that his rediscovered promise went unfulfilled and it was left to his vice-president, Lyndon Baines Johnson, to pass the Civil Rights Act. For this reason, it is useful to compare and evaluate Kennedy and Johnson together.
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The 1960 Election
An Irish Catholic from a privileged background in Boston, Massachusetts (his father had been the US ambassador to Great Britain), Kennedy graduated from Harvard University and served as a naval officer in the Pacific during World War II, where he was awarded a medal for bravery. His father Joseph (Joe) had been grooming his elder brother, Joseph (Joe) jr., for a political career but when Joe Jr. a bomber pilot in the US Navy, was killed in action in 1944, pressure grew on John to take his brother's place.
John F. Kennedy was elected to the US House of Representatives in 1947, where he served one term, and then was elected to the Senate in 1953. During the Democratic Party primaries of the 1960 Presidential Election, Kennedy defeated Lyndon Johnson to win the Democratic nomination for president. However, in order to secure a number of Southern states, Kennedy invited Johnson to be his vice-presidential nominee. His Republican rival for president was Richard Nixon.
The 1960 election was one of the closest elections in history- Kennedy won the crucial electoral college vote by 303 to 219 but only edged the popular vote (not decisive in elections but still significant) by 0.1% or roughly 102,000 votes nationally. There were three key factors in Kennedy's victory:
John F. Kennedy was elected to the US House of Representatives in 1947, where he served one term, and then was elected to the Senate in 1953. During the Democratic Party primaries of the 1960 Presidential Election, Kennedy defeated Lyndon Johnson to win the Democratic nomination for president. However, in order to secure a number of Southern states, Kennedy invited Johnson to be his vice-presidential nominee. His Republican rival for president was Richard Nixon.
The 1960 election was one of the closest elections in history- Kennedy won the crucial electoral college vote by 303 to 219 but only edged the popular vote (not decisive in elections but still significant) by 0.1% or roughly 102,000 votes nationally. There were three key factors in Kennedy's victory:
- The nomination of Johnson as running mate- Johnson was instrumental in carrying Southern states such as Texas which tended to be more conservative and pro-segregationist. The fact that Johnson was able to do this and then fours later sign the Civil Rights Act is something we'll address on the Johnson page.
- Unlike Nixon, who campaigned tirelessly in all 50 states, Kennedy conserved energy and resources by focussing his efforts on the crucial swing states.
- Kennedy embraced and mastered the relatively new medium of television. During the presidential debates (introduced for the first time in 1960), Kennedy looked relaxed and authoritative- presenting a presidential image- while Nixon to tired and flustered. Following the first televised debate, radio listeners believed that Nixon had better of the exchanges but TV audiences overwhelmingly favoured Kennedy. See the clip below for more on the Kennedy image.
The "New Frontier"
This the term used to describe Kennedy's domestic vision and was outlined at the 1960 Democratic Convention (where the presidential and vice-presidential nominees were announced). Essentially the New Frontier was a continuation of Roosevelt's 'New Deal' and Truman's 'Fair Deal'. Kennedy promised to:
Only holding a slim majority in congress, as well as taking some time to find the courage of his convictions, Kennedy was unable to achieve much of this. However, he did manage to raise the minimum way from $1 to $1.25, passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, secured $4.9 billion in grants for urban renewal, undertook regional development in Appalachia (which subsequently had a major impact in reducing poverty in the area over the next 3 decades) and created the Peace Corps.
- Alleviate poverty
- Raise the minimum wage
- Deliver equal pay for men and women
- Promote urban renewal
- Create the Peace Corps.
- Provide free medical care for the elderly
- Mass urban transit
- Create a Department of Urban Affairs
- Deliver regional development in Appalachia
Only holding a slim majority in congress, as well as taking some time to find the courage of his convictions, Kennedy was unable to achieve much of this. However, he did manage to raise the minimum way from $1 to $1.25, passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, secured $4.9 billion in grants for urban renewal, undertook regional development in Appalachia (which subsequently had a major impact in reducing poverty in the area over the next 3 decades) and created the Peace Corps.
Economic Legacy
Having inherited an ailing economy from Eisenhower, he introduced policies that created sustained GDP growth of 5.5% and reduced unemployed drastically (from 7% in 1960) by 1963. However, critics of the Kennedy legacy argue that these were merely short-term gains that gave way to long-term problems. Chief among these was the massive increase in the government budget deficit, which ballooned to $12 billion as a result of a tax cut in 1962 (designed to stimulate economic growth) and increased government spending. Eventually this debt was accompanied by increased interest on debt payments and a higher rate of inflation.
Civil Rights
If there was one area of domestic policy that sums up the Kennedy era, it was his approach to civil rights. Despite actively courting the black vote in 1960 (he helped negotiate the release of Martin Luther King from jail and increased opportunities for African-Americans), he chose to move slowly on the issue and preferred to allow the courts to drive the process of desegregation of schools. One significant action early on his presidency was the appointment of Thurgood Marshall (a prominent black lawyer) to the US Court of Appeals. He also intervened when the governor of Mississippi defied the Supreme Court to deny African-American U.S. Air Force veteran James Meredith the opportunity to enroll at the University of Mississippi. Kennedy federalized the Mississippi National Guard to escort Meredith to campus and was enrolled following the quelling of a violent riot. Despite the landmark ruling of Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954, it appeared that African-Americans would have to be more patient in waiting for an end to segregation as Kennedy appeared unwilling to lose the support of the South and the so-called 'Dixiecrats' before the 1964 election.
However, events in 1963 conspired to force Kennedy's hand and abandon his laissez-faire approach on this issue. Firstly, television cameras captured the events in Birmingham, Alabama, when participants in Martin Luther King's peaceful protest were attacked by local police led by Eugene 'Bull' Connor, a renowned racist and segregationist. Images of the Birmingham Campaign were beamed into American living rooms and around the world and many were shocked by what they saw. This was compounded by King's seminal "letter from Birmingham Jail".
Secondly, Governor George Wallace of Alabama attempted to defy the law courts (claiming that the federal government had violated states' rights) and prevented African American students from enrolling in the University of Alabama. Kennedy was forced to intervene by federalizing the National Guard in Alabama and force Wallace, who was physically blocking the doorway, to stand down. Wallace did so, but not before making a public speech designed to appeal to segregationists and undermine Kennedy. That evening, Kennedy addressed the American people on civil rights. Clips about the Birmingham Campaign, footage of the University of Alabama stand-off and the Kennedy address on civil rights can be found below. A copy of King's "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" can also be found below.
However, events in 1963 conspired to force Kennedy's hand and abandon his laissez-faire approach on this issue. Firstly, television cameras captured the events in Birmingham, Alabama, when participants in Martin Luther King's peaceful protest were attacked by local police led by Eugene 'Bull' Connor, a renowned racist and segregationist. Images of the Birmingham Campaign were beamed into American living rooms and around the world and many were shocked by what they saw. This was compounded by King's seminal "letter from Birmingham Jail".
Secondly, Governor George Wallace of Alabama attempted to defy the law courts (claiming that the federal government had violated states' rights) and prevented African American students from enrolling in the University of Alabama. Kennedy was forced to intervene by federalizing the National Guard in Alabama and force Wallace, who was physically blocking the doorway, to stand down. Wallace did so, but not before making a public speech designed to appeal to segregationists and undermine Kennedy. That evening, Kennedy addressed the American people on civil rights. Clips about the Birmingham Campaign, footage of the University of Alabama stand-off and the Kennedy address on civil rights can be found below. A copy of King's "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" can also be found below.
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Following these event, Kennedy began the process of putting together a Civil Rights Act, another he did not live to see it passed. He was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on the 22nd November 1963. His vice-president, Lyndon B. Johnson, ultimately was the man who passed the law that banned segregation and realised much of Kennedy's domestic vision.
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