JOHN DIEFENBAKER 1957-1963
Like many world leaders, Diefenbaker was an interesting combination of strengths and weaknesses, achieving many meaningful accomplishments but making some costly mistakes that ultimately led to his downfall.
Achievements
Securing a Conservative majority in the Canadian Parliament
Diefenbaker was the first Conservative Prime Minister following 22 years of Liberal control of government under Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent. Having only secured enough seats in Parliament to form a minority government in 1957, Diefenbaker acted decisively to win an overwhelming majority (the largest in Canadian history) in 1958. Firstly, he cut personal income tax and raised pension payouts at a time when unemployment was low and the government had a budget surplus. Next, he called an election in the middle of a Liberal leadership contest following the retirement of St. Laurent. Diefenbaker was riding high in the opinion polls and the Liberals were unable to organize themselves around a uniting figure. The result was a resounding victory for the Conservatives which appeared to bring an end to an era of Liberal dominance.
Diefenbaker was the first Conservative Prime Minister following 22 years of Liberal control of government under Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent. Having only secured enough seats in Parliament to form a minority government in 1957, Diefenbaker acted decisively to win an overwhelming majority (the largest in Canadian history) in 1958. Firstly, he cut personal income tax and raised pension payouts at a time when unemployment was low and the government had a budget surplus. Next, he called an election in the middle of a Liberal leadership contest following the retirement of St. Laurent. Diefenbaker was riding high in the opinion polls and the Liberals were unable to organize themselves around a uniting figure. The result was a resounding victory for the Conservatives which appeared to bring an end to an era of Liberal dominance.
"Unhyphenated Canadianism"
Diefenbaker was also dynamic and seized the opportunity to define what it meant to be Canadian at a time of significant social change. As many non-English and non-French immigrants arrived, Diefenbaker articulated a vision of Canadian citizenship that was more inclusive and based on equality for all. Instead of being "English-Canadian" or "French-Canadian", someone could simply describe themselves as Canadian. At a stroke, Diefenbaker had succeeded where the Liberals had failed.
Diefenbaker was also dynamic and seized the opportunity to define what it meant to be Canadian at a time of significant social change. As many non-English and non-French immigrants arrived, Diefenbaker articulated a vision of Canadian citizenship that was more inclusive and based on equality for all. Instead of being "English-Canadian" or "French-Canadian", someone could simply describe themselves as Canadian. At a stroke, Diefenbaker had succeeded where the Liberals had failed.
"I am the first prime minister of this country of neither English or French origin. So I am determined to bring about a Canadian citizenship that knew no hyphenated consideration. I'm very happy to be able to say that in the House of Commons today in my party we have members of Italian, Dutch, German, Scandinavian, Chinese and Ukrainian origin- and they are all Canadians."
The "Northern Dream"
As a native of Saskatchewan, Diefenbaker sought to give a voice to previously neglected regions of Canada. He wanted to open up these northern regions of Canada to economic development and infrastructure building. Although he was ultimately unable to realise this ambition (he failed to build a consensus within his own cabinet), he did manage to raise awareness of this issue in the minds of many Canadians who had long been focussed on the traditional heartlands of Liberal support in Souther Ontario and Quebec.
As a native of Saskatchewan, Diefenbaker sought to give a voice to previously neglected regions of Canada. He wanted to open up these northern regions of Canada to economic development and infrastructure building. Although he was ultimately unable to realise this ambition (he failed to build a consensus within his own cabinet), he did manage to raise awareness of this issue in the minds of many Canadians who had long been focussed on the traditional heartlands of Liberal support in Souther Ontario and Quebec.
Minority Rights
Diefenbaker became a major proponent of the rights of First Nations people. He appointed the first First Nations member of the Senate (James Gladstone) and extended the voting franchise to all First Nations people in 1960. That same year, his government also passed the Canadian Bill of Rights which formally enshrined fundamental freedoms in law. However, its effectiveness was limited because it could be amended by other laws and there was a general understanding that civil rights were a provincial matter outside the authority of the federal government. Finally, Diefenbaker also appointed the first female cabinet minister in Canadian history- Ellen Fairclough became Minister of Citizenship and Immigration.
Diefenbaker became a major proponent of the rights of First Nations people. He appointed the first First Nations member of the Senate (James Gladstone) and extended the voting franchise to all First Nations people in 1960. That same year, his government also passed the Canadian Bill of Rights which formally enshrined fundamental freedoms in law. However, its effectiveness was limited because it could be amended by other laws and there was a general understanding that civil rights were a provincial matter outside the authority of the federal government. Finally, Diefenbaker also appointed the first female cabinet minister in Canadian history- Ellen Fairclough became Minister of Citizenship and Immigration.
Failures
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Cancellation of the Avro Arrow Project
Diefenbaker signed the NORAD agreement (North American Aerospace Defense Command) with the USA in 1957. This committed both countries to a bi-national defence of North American airspace, the creation of an early warning system in the event of a missile attack and an air squadron on permanent standby. The potential for an ICBM attack on the North American continent was a massive concern for both countries (as was Soviet expansionism) in the aftermath of the Sputnik launch. As a result of US-Canadian cooperation, the US offered Canada 56 Bomark anti-aircraft missiles ,which could be equipped with nuclear warheads. The effect of these actions were to render the Avro Arrow fighter interceptor obsolete. The Avro Arrow was a state of the art (but costly), Canadian-designed aircraft designed to counter the threat of Soviet bombers. They could not, however, intercept ICBMs. |
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The Avro Arrow Project had already been identified by the Diefenbaker administration as an area where the Canadian government could reduce its expenditure and with the advent of ICBMs and the NORAD agreement, the decision was taken to cancel the project. However, it was soon clear that the government had not put plans in place to manage the effects of the cancellation. Thousands of jobs were lost and there was a 'brain-drain' exodus of talented aerospace engineers to the United States.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
To further compound the Avro Arrow Project crisis of 1959, Diefenbaker appeared slow and indecisive in responding to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. In this case, Diefenbaker had failed to fulfil the responsibilities of the NORAD agreement by deploying the nuclear missiles installed in northern Ontario and Quebec in 1959. This failure brought criticism from US President Kennedy after the crisis and caused a disagreement within the Diefenbaker government during the crisis, with Minister of Defence Douglas Harkness resigning in protest. To many Canadians, Diefenbaker had embarrassed Canada by misjudging events in Cuba and the international climate. Ultimately, this led to a vote of no confidence in Diefenbaker's government and his subsequent resignation.
To further compound the Avro Arrow Project crisis of 1959, Diefenbaker appeared slow and indecisive in responding to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. In this case, Diefenbaker had failed to fulfil the responsibilities of the NORAD agreement by deploying the nuclear missiles installed in northern Ontario and Quebec in 1959. This failure brought criticism from US President Kennedy after the crisis and caused a disagreement within the Diefenbaker government during the crisis, with Minister of Defence Douglas Harkness resigning in protest. To many Canadians, Diefenbaker had embarrassed Canada by misjudging events in Cuba and the international climate. Ultimately, this led to a vote of no confidence in Diefenbaker's government and his subsequent resignation.
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"Diefenbuck"
In order to head off emerging economic problems (inflation, a balance of payments deficit and a sluggish tourist economy), Diefenbaker devalued the Canadian dollar to an unprecedented 92.5 US cents. This action became a target of much satirical derision and cost him dearly in the 1962 election. As a result, the Liberal Party made significant gains at the expense of the Conservatives and Diefenbaker was forced to return to minority government.
Personal relations within government
Diefenbaker's upbringing in rural Saskatchewan was far removed from the metropolitan elite of Toronto, Montreal and Ottawa. He was deeply suspicious and paranoid of the civil servants in Ottawa that had worked with the previous Liberal governments for 20 years and could be ill-tempered with colleagues in private. Increasingly, his world-view, particularly his vision of Canada's role in the world, was anachronistic as he advocated a closer relationship with Britain at a time of rapid decolonization and when closer ties with the United States appeared to be the logical and pragmatic choice. |
Diefenbaker's relationship with the young, urbane American President Kennedy was perhaps symbolic of these issues. Kennedy found it hard to get along with Diefenbaker, describing time spent in his company as 'painful' and was soon bored of the Canadian Prime Minister's Churchill anecdotes. As a result, Kennedy often spent more time with Lester Pearson, the Liberal leader, instead. For his part, Diefenbaker was weary of what he saw as American interference in Canadian politics and this played a factor in his sluggish and indecisive reaction to the Cuban Missile Crisis.