EVENTS IN POLAND AND HUNGARY 1956
Poland
Despite Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin at the 20th Party Congress occurring behind closed doors, the details of his speech were anything but secret. Word of Stalin's crimes and the promise of De-Stalinization spread throughout the Eastern Bloc, spread by sources such as Radio Free Europe in Poland and the CIA. The execution of Beria in 1953 (for treason- many suspected he was trying to trade Germany and other territory inside the Soviet sphere for US financial aid) further accelerated the process of De-Stalinization as his carefully constructed European network of Soviet spies disintegrated. Popular politicians (who were nationalist and communist) such as Pole Wladyslaw Gomulka were released from prison. Across Eastern Europe there was an anticipation of a relaxation of Soviet control.
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Anticipation of increased freedoms across Europe were heightened by Khrushchev's visit to Yugoslavia in 1955. He met with Josip Tito, under whose leadership Yugoslavia had been expelled from Cominform in 1948. Khrushchev made it clear to Tito that he held Stalin responsible for the split, under the auspices of attempting to woo Yugoslavia back into the Soviet sphere of influence. For his part, Tito believed that he had now become a role model for other Eastern European leaders, winning autonomy for his country by defying Stalin. Both leaders announced that there was more than one path to Socialism and that attempts at imposing uniformity across the Communist world were wrong. To the peoples of Eastern Europe, it appeared that Khrushchev was determined to tear down the Stalinist edifice once and for all.
However, as with so many attempts to introduce greater degrees of political freedom, there were limits to the degree of independence that Moscow was prepared to give to its satellite states. Sensing an opportunity amid poorer working conditions, Polish factory workers rioted in the city of Poznan in June 1956. Although these riots were suppressed violently by police, reformers within the Polish Communist Party attempted to install Gomulka as leader to maintain popular support. Worried that Gomulka, a renowned nationalist, might attempt to break completely from Soviet control, Khrushchev ordered the Red Army to advance on Warsaw in order to prevent his ascension to power.
Gomulka refused to be intimidated and made it clear that the Polish people would resist if necessary. Ultimately, a compromise was agreed. Gomulka was made leader of Poland as long as the country remained part of the Warsaw Pact. Realising the instability of the Polish border with Germany (West Germany refused to recognize the new border), Gomulka agreed that membership of the Warsaw Pact was necessary to maintain Polish sovereignty. For the rest of the 1950's, Gomulka was a popular leader (even managing to get the pro-Soviet Defence Minister Konstantin Rokossovsky recalled by Moscow) but became more conservative during the 1960's, when he began persecute the Catholic Church and intellectuals
However, as with so many attempts to introduce greater degrees of political freedom, there were limits to the degree of independence that Moscow was prepared to give to its satellite states. Sensing an opportunity amid poorer working conditions, Polish factory workers rioted in the city of Poznan in June 1956. Although these riots were suppressed violently by police, reformers within the Polish Communist Party attempted to install Gomulka as leader to maintain popular support. Worried that Gomulka, a renowned nationalist, might attempt to break completely from Soviet control, Khrushchev ordered the Red Army to advance on Warsaw in order to prevent his ascension to power.
Gomulka refused to be intimidated and made it clear that the Polish people would resist if necessary. Ultimately, a compromise was agreed. Gomulka was made leader of Poland as long as the country remained part of the Warsaw Pact. Realising the instability of the Polish border with Germany (West Germany refused to recognize the new border), Gomulka agreed that membership of the Warsaw Pact was necessary to maintain Polish sovereignty. For the rest of the 1950's, Gomulka was a popular leader (even managing to get the pro-Soviet Defence Minister Konstantin Rokossovsky recalled by Moscow) but became more conservative during the 1960's, when he began persecute the Catholic Church and intellectuals
The Hungarian Uprising
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The Hungarian uprising should be studied in combination with the
Suez Canal Crisis
.
In 1953, Hungary experienced similar events to those in the GDR. Hungary was controlled by a Stalinist, Maytas Rakosi, who pursued similar reforms to Walter Ulbricht- rapid socialization coupled with persecution of the population by the much-despised AVO (a secret police comprised of ex-fascists who were prominent during the 1930's and World War II, when Hungary was a client state of Nazi Germany). In contrast to the GDR, when unrest occurred in 1953, the Soviet leadership decided to remove Rakosi as leader and replace him with popular nationalist (and also moderate) Imre Nagy. Nagy spent two years embarking on a 'new course' for Hungarian Socialism, which included introducing limited freedoms of speech and press, the end of forced collectivization, some private enterprise and emphasis on the production of consumer goods. These reforms were successful and popular- food shortages ended, the real standard of living for workers increased by 12% and consumer goods were more widely available. However, Rakosi was merely plotting his return to power. He seized his opportunity in early 1955 when Nagy suffered a heart attack. Suddenly, Hungary returned to Stalinist rule. However, by the summer of 1956, the political climate changed once more. Khrushchev had re-established relations with Tito- who was attempting to gain influence in Hungary by persuading the country to take a more independent line- and began the process of De-Stalinization. Additionally, Polish rioting in the industrial city of Poznan was placing pressure on the Soviet Politburo to act once again in the Eastern Bloc. In June, Khrushchev replaced Rakosi with Erno Gero to appease the Hungarian masses. However, this did not work as Gero was no more acceptable than Rakosi for many Hungarians and the people pushed for further concessions from the USSR, inspired by the example of Tito and events in Poland. A few days after the appointment of the popular Gomulka in Poland, Hungarian students and intellectuals formed a massive demonstration in central Budapest, attacking and decapitating a giant statue of Stalin. Gero responded by calling for Soviet intervention and appointing Nagy as leader, in the hope of both deterring and appeasing protesters. By the this time, a broad section of Hungarian society (including workers) were battling with Soviet troops and tanks in the streets of Budapest and the situation had turned to fully-fledged revolution, with the Soviets having clearly lost control of the situation. Gero was removed from power altogether, the Soviets put their faith in the popular Nagy and the Red Army withdrew from the main towns. Fighting seemed to calm down upon appeals from Nagy. What happened next was critical and had far-reaching ramifications for communism in Eastern Europe. Nagy had previously attempted to steer Hungary onto his 'new course' within the framework of a one-party state. Now he pledged to go even further- to end the system of one-party rule altogether (hadn't Khrushchev acknowledged that there was more than one 'road to socialism'?) and withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. This was unacceptable to Khrushchev. In early November, he ordered the Red Army to move into Hungarian towns and cities. Convinced that the West would intervene on their side (swayed by false reports on local radio), the Hungarians fought back. The number of Hungarian dead is estimated at between 3000-30,000, while thousands more were deported to Soviet prison camps. 200,000 Hungarians escaped to Austria and defected to the West. Clearly, the limits of De-Stalinization had been reached in Hungary. |
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